An Introduction to Russian Ballet: Everything you need to know, from 1734 to today
To mark World Ballet Day 2020, Madeleine Cuckson charts the course of Russia’s most graceful art, from its origins in Imperial Russia, through the turbulence of the USSR, to its enduring cultural influence today.
The Mariinsky Theatre, St Petersburg. Image credit: Wikimedia Commons.
The origins of ballet in Russia stretch back two hundred years - in the 17th and 18th century ballet flourished under Peter the Great, who reigned from 1682-1725. Peter the Great viewed ballet as one of the mediums via which Russia could challenge the West through art and culture - his ambition ignited a cultural revolution in Russia. From here Russia would go on to become the most internationally influential ballet-powerhouse, home to the talent behind the Ballets Russes, and training dancers of the likes of Nijinsky, Pavlova, Taglioni and Nureyev - world renowned figures, some of whom are household names to this day.
Empress Anna Ivanovna (Peter the Great's niece) who was fond of ostentatious events, appointed French dancer Jean-Baptiste Lande as the dancing-master of the Military Academy in 1734. The following year, Lande staged his first ballet and in 1738 opened the Imperial Theatre School in St Petersburg’s Winter Palace, followed by the acclaimed Mariinsky Ballet in the 1740s which thrives to this day. Lande - a pioneering Frenchman in Russia, paid little attention to native Russian folklore in the narratives of his choreography. Technique and performance subject-matter were mainly taken from traditions and sources overseas - primarily focused on classical mythology. At this point, the Mariinsky Ballet was home to great international dancers, including Christian Johansson and Marie Taglioni but more rare were high profile Russian dancers.
Founded in 1776, the Bolshoi Ballet did not achieve international acclaim until Moscow became the capital of Soviet Russia in the 20th century, having previously been competing with the Mariinsky Ballet. In 1900 with the appointment of choreographer Alexander Gorsky as master at the Bolshoi, his influence curated a newfound signature style for the company. From this period came new and restaged productions that are recognised worldwide, including Swan Lake with music by Tchaikovsky, The Nutcracker, and Sleeping Beauty. The Bolshoi was now Russia’s leading ballet troupe and Russia was at the forefront of an international movement, bringing unprecedented depths to the artform by incorporating drama.
Anna Pavlova in a traditional Russian kokoshnik. Image credit: public domain.
Among notable figures trained and celebrated in Imperial Russia was Anna Pavlova (1881-1931). Pavlova took the ballet scene by a storm, despite her unusually slight physique for a dancer of her time, Pavlova is said to have possessed an innate quality of movement that cannot be taught. After training at the Imperial Mariinsky Ballet, Pavlova rose to fame through celebrated performances including Giselle and perhaps most pivotally her solo performance of The Dying Swan, choreographed for her by Mikhail Fokin in 1905. Pavlova did contribute for a short period of time to the Ballets Russes, however she is said to have found Stravinsky’s avant-garde scores too unusual. Leaving the Imperial Ballet in 1913, Pavlova founded her own dance company, her forte was not to innovate but to take classical dances from imperial Russia across the world - performing well known Mariinksy ballets, including Don Quixote and Giselle.
The Soviet era brought fundamental changes to ballet in Russia. With the necessity to conform to Soviet realism, the trajectory of Russian ballet shifted drastically. The fall of imperialism posed a serious threat to ballet, which from its inception had existed as an aristocratic cultural form. In keeping with the aristocratic social system, traditional ballet narratives often followed that of princesses, princes, romanticised flute playing shepherds and peasants. Ballet dancers themselves were also under threat - they now represented the ‘old world’ of aristocracy, many had guaranteed pensions, lived comfortable lives and up until now were completely removed from the day-to-day lives of so many Russians.
Far from Soviet visualisation of modernity was Russian ballet in its current form. With a sudden lack of state support and contempt for the aristocratic lifestyle that Russian ballet represented, the threat to the freedom of ballet sparked the mass emigration of highly skilled ballet personnel to central Europe, including Nijinsky (who became the principal dancer of the Ballets Russes), as well as Anna Pavlova. With them they took crucial knowledge of ballet practices, leaving behind a technical and artistic void.
Léon Bakst’s set design for the 1909 Ballets Russes production of Cleopatra. Image credit: public domain
Under Soviet rule, the Bolshoi Ballet company was required to depict uncomplicated moral themes. Notable ballets were still produced, including: The Red Poppy, Romeo and Juliet and Ivan the Terrible. Soviet Realism required strict compliance - in part for this reason, impresario Sergei Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes (1909-1929), which was argued to be the most influential ballet company of the 20th century, could not have achieved the groundbreaking heights that it did had the company been situated in Russia, hence its residence in Paris. Diaghilev and his circle were attracted to ballet for its anti-realist qualities, with a focus on romantic dreams and mystical realms, a vehicle of escapism to ancient times, often drawing from traditional Russian folklore. Using dancers from the Imperial Ballet (Mariinsky), Diaghilev elevated the careers of many performers, not limited to dancers. A significant reason for the Ballets Russes’ success was Diaglev’s collaboration with artists - these collaborators pose as a ‘who’s who’ of the 1920’s: including Chagall, Stravinsky, Cocteau, Debussy and Matisse.
One of Diagilev’s most crucial partnerships, a man who helped to solidify the overall characteristic aesthetic of the company’s performances in its initial years, was Russian born artist Léon Bakst. Baskt’s artistic style was highly expressive, using bold colours to depict exotic sets and costumes - the 1909 production of Cleopatra saw enormous painted backdrops of Egyptian architecture and equally dazzling costumes to match. Bakst rejected the traditions of imperial ballet, with ballerinas who wore pink satin shoes and tutus no matter the narrative subject. Instead, Bakst drew from many cultures and experiences gained through travelling, adding a unique energy to each fantastical character and story performed. Through such integral collaborations, Diaglev sparked European intrigue in Russian art and culture, showcasing Russia’s immeasurable talent.
Vaslav Nijinsky, a ballet dancer, in a scene from Gìsèle'. Reproduction of a photograph by Roosen, 1934. Image credit: Wellcome Images.
Perhaps one of the most enigmatic figures of Russian ballet is Vaslav Nijinky - the former principal of the Ballets Russes. Born in 1889, Nijinsky, at the age of 19 was proclaimed to be the greatest male ballet dancer the world had seen, with the ability to jump to unfathomable heights. There is no video footage of him dancing, as Diagilev prohibited any filming of the Ballets Russes’ productions and indeed once Nijinsky was dropped from the company (following his marriage to Ramola de Pulszky and subsequent betrayal of former lover Diaghilev), Nijinsky pursued his own dancing and choreographing career and he too was averse to any performance being captured on film.
Perhaps most extraordinary about Nijinsky was his capacity to communicate entirely through physicality, finding words an insubstantial means of reference - he is reported to have held discomfort with verbalisation. Stravinsky, the celebrated Russian born composer and conductor once wrote of Nijinsky’s ‘ignorance of the most elementary notions of music’. The complex nature of Nijinsky’s means for communication and specified knowledge made him at once hold the capacity to communicate universally and dually lack the ability to communicate at all. He allegedly refused to give any more than one word explanations to his dancers as corrections and instead tirelessly danced for them, demonstrating through practical explanations which could not translate to words.
A more contemporary icon of Russian ballet is Rudolf Nureyev - born in 1938 on a Trans-Siberian train, Nureyev would go on to be one of the most beloved figures of the Soviet ballet circle and later be regarded by some as the greatest male ballet dancer of his generation. Nureyev hit headlines when he defected from Russia in 1961 after performing in Paris - marking the first defect of a Soviet artist during the Cold War. Nureyev was perhaps most recognised for his iconic dancing partnership with Margot Fonteyn (the former Royal Ballet prima ballerina), their partnership was not easy at first and Nureyev was said to make unrealistic demands of Fonteyn in rehearsals.
Nureyev in his dressing room at the Royal Ballet School in London, 1974. Image credit: Allan Warren, Wikimedia Commons.
An unlikely pairing in many ways, Fonteyn was 19 years Nureyev’s senior and moving towards retirement - however the two possessed an otherworldly chemistry when performing. Nureyev made a significant contribution to the reappraisal of male ballet and is said to have remoulded the role of the male dancer (who’s focus had previously been supporting the female ballerina) into allowing male dancers to take the limelight and the audience’s primary focus. Nureyev was an actor in his performances perhaps as much as he was a dancer - embodying the shift in ballet technique and narrative which began to take place in the 20th century. With his unusual ability to demand the attention of any audience, Nureyev achieved celebrity status in the West.
Despite the initial training of international ballet talent in Imperial Russia, within the last two centuries innumerable figures of ballet talent have poured from Russian training institutes. Today, dancers like Natalia Osipova - the current principal dancer of The Royal Ballet in London who trained at the Bolshoi Ballet, hold the torch of a skill and precision unique to Russia, allowing this craft to be admired internationally. There is no doubt that Russia has retained its reputation as the revolutioniser of ballet and although art and performance in Soviet Russia generally remained within the country’s borders, the Ballets Russes’ international presence and knock-on effect on worldwide ballet showcased the integrity of Russian ballet. Ballet is malleable, making it the perfect story-telling vessel - reinforcing its resilience and power to communicate meaning through movement, enduring the test of time.
The Mariinsky Theatre today. Image credit: sergejf on Flickr.
About the author
Madeleine Cuckson is an English Literature and Drama graduate from The University of Manchester. Since finishing her studies, Madeleine has worked in both the post-production film and experiential design industry - private and charity sector. Madeleine has a specific interest in Russia’s arts and cultural history with a current focus on performance and the Ballets Russes.